As a preparation for the session about 'Pedagogy' I searched an interesting article about a pedagogical approach. I found: ‘An effective metacognitive strategy: learning by doing
and explaining with a computer-based Cognitive Tutor’ by Aleven and Koedinger (2002).
Summary
This article is about a Cognitive Tutor, which is intelligent instructional software that supports guided learning by doing for learning ‘self explanation’. The authors investigated whether self-explanation can be scaffolded effectively in a classroom using the cognitive tutor. They found that students who explained their steps during problem-solving practice with a cognitive tutor learned with greater understanding compared to students who did not explain steps. They stat that these results show that the benefits of self-explanation can be achieved in a relatively simple computer-bases approach that scales for classroom use.
Relevance
I think this article is relevant for the session about pedagogy because it describes a pedagogical strategy, which is supported by technology. Learning by doing and explaining can be supported by an computer-based tutor, which guide the students in the process of self-explanation. As the results show, such tutors can be beneficial and enhance deeper understanding of the problem solving practice. Such a tutor can support the teacher in teaching different strategies, like self explanation, by letting students work with a computer-based tutor.
Link to article:
http://pd.ilt.columbia.edu/papers/AlevenV2002MetaStrategyLearnByDoWithComputer.pdf
Reference
Aleven, V. & Koedinger, K. R. (2002). An effective metacognitive strategy: learning by doing and explaining with a computer-based Cognitive Tutor. Cognitive science 26, 147-179.
Monday, September 28, 2009
Assignment about flexibility
Flexibility is a hot topic in education these days, but its definition is not always clear. As Collis and Moonen (2001) state: ‘Flexibility is not just about distance’. Therefore this is an overview of five different kinds of flexibility. Each aspect is shortly described and some advantages and disadvantages of this kind of flexibility will be discussed. For making this overview I made use of the literature of Collis and Moonen (2001) about flexible learning. They present five dimensions of flexible learning which have formed a basis for my five kinds of flexible learning which are presented below.
1. Flexibility related to time
The first kind of flexibility focuses on flexibility in time. For example the starting time and finishing time of a course or the flexibility in time for submitting assignments and interacting within the course. Another aspect related to time is the pacing of studying and the moments of assessment (Collis & Moonen, 2001).
So flexibility can be seen in more simple ways as for example submitting assignments through mail, whenever you like, but before a deadline (and not only during a face-to-face meeting). But the learner can for example also do an assignment when he is ready for it, while another student is already at the next assignment. This flexibility offers studying in one’s own tempo, which allows students to study at times and pace that they prefer. Especially for non-regular students this would be great, because the course is more user-specific. But this kind of flexibility asks more of the organizational skills from the instructor of the course. When the learner is given more choice in time, it requires the instructor to respond and individualize rather than to plan and deliver. This could be liberating, he or she has more freedom in organizing his own time, but more tailored training is more time- and effort-consuming than standardized approaches for the instructor (Collis & Moonen, 2001). Beside that if time flexibility is promised, how to schedule lectures and make sure there is a room available? This kind of logistic aspects can quickly become unmanageable for the instructor and the institution (Collis & Moonen, 2001).
2. Flexibility related to content
Another aspect of flexibility is related to content of learning, this content could be fixed or flexible. For example the topics of the course could be flexible, students can pick their own topics or co-determine which topics they want to be part of the course. Another aspect could be the sequence of the topics, this could be fixed or flexible. Besides that, the assessment standards could be more flexible also, so it is not fixed by the teacher what to be assessed en when it is sufficient (Collis & Moonen, 2001).
Flexibility in choosing one’s own content makes a leaner more like a client in the supermarket, picking up the course or topics he or she wants (Collis & Moonen, 2001). This can motivate learners and empowers them. However, it also asks a lot of self-direction and self-motivation from the learners. Some learners just need or appreciate an expert making this choices for them. So considering this balance is important in thinking about flexibility of content. This ‘supermarket-concept’ could be related to content but also to all the other aspects of flexibility which are mentioned in this overview. Too much choice is often not beneficial, both for the learner and the instructor.
3. Flexibility related to learning material and resources
Learning materials could be fixed, or there could me more space for choosing one’s own material. This choice could be on supplements of material to the core resource (for example a textbook). Options are articles provided on a learning environment , educational software or resources via the WWW (Collis & Moonen, 2001). Students can also be partly responsible for providing appropriate additional information or resources for the course instead of the teacher only. An important question is how to guarantee quality of this material, which is provided by students. The quality of the course should not be diminished by making the course more flexible. Besides that the assessments should fit the content. So when different learning materials can be used and learners can choose their own, it have to be made sure that everyone gets the same information and that the assessment fits this information. Or flexible assessments are necessary, or the consequence of using different and own material for testing the knowledge has to been taken into account by designing a test.
4. Flexibility related to instructional approach
The instructional approach could be flexible in a way that it is flexible in the social organization of learning. For example flexibility in variation of face-to-face meetings, grouping or individual meetings. Another example of flexibility in instructional approach is the language that is used during the course. This could be fixed in using one language, or flexible in accordance of the composition of the group or preferences of the group. Besides that, the instructional organization of learning can be flexible, there can be made use of assignments or other ways like monitoring. But also the choice in working on these assignments can be flexible: individually, in groups or a combination of both (Collis & Moonen, 2001). An advantage of choosing your own work form (individual or group) is that you are free in choosing what fits you the best. But beside that it is important that students learn to collaborate and that learning is often a social happening. If a learner is socially not very strong, it would prefer to work alone, but he or she never learns to work in a group when he can always choose to work individually.
5. Flexibility related to delivery and logistics
In this category of flexibility there is the aspect of distance, which many people associate first with flexible learning. The time and place where contact with the instructor and other students occur can be fixed or flexible by for example providing lectures via skype. Besides that there could be flexibility in using different communication channels, apart from face-to-face contact. For being flexible in doing so there has to be a certain flexibility in using different kinds of technology to deliver information or to make contact (Collis & Moonen, 2001). An example is blackboard where learning material can be placed and assignments can be delivered, without face-to-face contact or on a specific time. An advantage is that learning is no longer restricted to a particular place, a learner could look at a taped lecture behind his computer at home, which gives him much more freedom in where and when to study. By using different kinds of technology the flexibility could be raised significantly, but teachers and students are often not used to online learning and have to possess the skills needed to use these technologies for learning. Dorrian and Wache (2008) state that reducing anxiety and resistance by providing support for students who may not feel comfortable operating in the online environment is essential for successful flexible learning.
References
Collis, B.. & Moonen, J. (2002). Flexible learning in a digital world: Experiences and expectations. London: Kogan Page.
Dorrian, J. & Wache, D. (2008). Introduction of an online approach to flexible learning for on-campus and distance education students: lessons learned and ways forward. Nurse education today 29, 157-167.
1. Flexibility related to time
The first kind of flexibility focuses on flexibility in time. For example the starting time and finishing time of a course or the flexibility in time for submitting assignments and interacting within the course. Another aspect related to time is the pacing of studying and the moments of assessment (Collis & Moonen, 2001).
So flexibility can be seen in more simple ways as for example submitting assignments through mail, whenever you like, but before a deadline (and not only during a face-to-face meeting). But the learner can for example also do an assignment when he is ready for it, while another student is already at the next assignment. This flexibility offers studying in one’s own tempo, which allows students to study at times and pace that they prefer. Especially for non-regular students this would be great, because the course is more user-specific. But this kind of flexibility asks more of the organizational skills from the instructor of the course. When the learner is given more choice in time, it requires the instructor to respond and individualize rather than to plan and deliver. This could be liberating, he or she has more freedom in organizing his own time, but more tailored training is more time- and effort-consuming than standardized approaches for the instructor (Collis & Moonen, 2001). Beside that if time flexibility is promised, how to schedule lectures and make sure there is a room available? This kind of logistic aspects can quickly become unmanageable for the instructor and the institution (Collis & Moonen, 2001).
2. Flexibility related to content
Another aspect of flexibility is related to content of learning, this content could be fixed or flexible. For example the topics of the course could be flexible, students can pick their own topics or co-determine which topics they want to be part of the course. Another aspect could be the sequence of the topics, this could be fixed or flexible. Besides that, the assessment standards could be more flexible also, so it is not fixed by the teacher what to be assessed en when it is sufficient (Collis & Moonen, 2001).
Flexibility in choosing one’s own content makes a leaner more like a client in the supermarket, picking up the course or topics he or she wants (Collis & Moonen, 2001). This can motivate learners and empowers them. However, it also asks a lot of self-direction and self-motivation from the learners. Some learners just need or appreciate an expert making this choices for them. So considering this balance is important in thinking about flexibility of content. This ‘supermarket-concept’ could be related to content but also to all the other aspects of flexibility which are mentioned in this overview. Too much choice is often not beneficial, both for the learner and the instructor.
3. Flexibility related to learning material and resources
Learning materials could be fixed, or there could me more space for choosing one’s own material. This choice could be on supplements of material to the core resource (for example a textbook). Options are articles provided on a learning environment , educational software or resources via the WWW (Collis & Moonen, 2001). Students can also be partly responsible for providing appropriate additional information or resources for the course instead of the teacher only. An important question is how to guarantee quality of this material, which is provided by students. The quality of the course should not be diminished by making the course more flexible. Besides that the assessments should fit the content. So when different learning materials can be used and learners can choose their own, it have to be made sure that everyone gets the same information and that the assessment fits this information. Or flexible assessments are necessary, or the consequence of using different and own material for testing the knowledge has to been taken into account by designing a test.
4. Flexibility related to instructional approach
The instructional approach could be flexible in a way that it is flexible in the social organization of learning. For example flexibility in variation of face-to-face meetings, grouping or individual meetings. Another example of flexibility in instructional approach is the language that is used during the course. This could be fixed in using one language, or flexible in accordance of the composition of the group or preferences of the group. Besides that, the instructional organization of learning can be flexible, there can be made use of assignments or other ways like monitoring. But also the choice in working on these assignments can be flexible: individually, in groups or a combination of both (Collis & Moonen, 2001). An advantage of choosing your own work form (individual or group) is that you are free in choosing what fits you the best. But beside that it is important that students learn to collaborate and that learning is often a social happening. If a learner is socially not very strong, it would prefer to work alone, but he or she never learns to work in a group when he can always choose to work individually.
5. Flexibility related to delivery and logistics
In this category of flexibility there is the aspect of distance, which many people associate first with flexible learning. The time and place where contact with the instructor and other students occur can be fixed or flexible by for example providing lectures via skype. Besides that there could be flexibility in using different communication channels, apart from face-to-face contact. For being flexible in doing so there has to be a certain flexibility in using different kinds of technology to deliver information or to make contact (Collis & Moonen, 2001). An example is blackboard where learning material can be placed and assignments can be delivered, without face-to-face contact or on a specific time. An advantage is that learning is no longer restricted to a particular place, a learner could look at a taped lecture behind his computer at home, which gives him much more freedom in where and when to study. By using different kinds of technology the flexibility could be raised significantly, but teachers and students are often not used to online learning and have to possess the skills needed to use these technologies for learning. Dorrian and Wache (2008) state that reducing anxiety and resistance by providing support for students who may not feel comfortable operating in the online environment is essential for successful flexible learning.
References
Collis, B.. & Moonen, J. (2002). Flexible learning in a digital world: Experiences and expectations. London: Kogan Page.
Dorrian, J. & Wache, D. (2008). Introduction of an online approach to flexible learning for on-campus and distance education students: lessons learned and ways forward. Nurse education today 29, 157-167.
Thursday, September 24, 2009
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